The global uprisings of 1968 were a watershed moment that reshaped politics, culture, and society across continents. While much attention has been given to student leaders and labor organizers, the indispensable role of women in these movements has often been marginalized. Women were not merely support figures; they were strategists, frontline protesters, and catalysts for change. From Paris to Prague, from Mexico City to Tokyo, women in student and worker movements challenged authoritarian structures, sexist hierarchies, and economic injustice. This expanded account explores their multifaceted contributions, the unique obstacles they faced, and the lasting legacy of their activism in the context of second-wave feminism and ongoing struggles for equality.

Women in the Student Movements of 1968

Student protests in 1968 were a global phenomenon, fueled by opposition to the Vietnam War, critiques of consumer capitalism, demands for educational reform, and a yearning for personal freedom. Women students were at the heart of these movements, often assuming leadership roles and organizing direct actions. Their participation was not only a fight against the establishment but also a struggle against the deeply ingrained sexism within the student organizations themselves.

The United States: From Berkeley to Columbia

In the United States, the student movement coalesced around the anti-war effort and the civil rights movement. Women at the University of California, Berkeley, and Columbia University were active in the Free Speech Movement and the student occupations of 1968. They organized teach-ins, coordinated marches, and faced police brutality. However, they also confronted sexism within the male-dominated leadership of the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). Women in SDS began to hold consciousness-raising sessions, challenging the idea that women's issues were secondary to the "larger" anti-war struggle. This internal tension ultimately gave rise to the women's liberation movement, which would become a powerful force in the 1970s. Notable figures include Bernardine Dohrn, a leader in the radical Weather Underground, though her role was exceptional in a sea of anonymous grassroots organizers.

France: The May ’68 Revolution and the Barricades

France witnessed one of the most dramatic student uprisings in history in May 1968. Women students at the University of Paris (Nanterre and the Sorbonne) were instrumental in sparking the protests that led to a nationwide general strike. They participated in the occupation of buildings, fought on barricades, and helped run the massive demonstrations. Yet, they also faced sexism from male comrades who dismissed their concerns. The iconic slogan "Sous les pavés, la plage" (Under the cobblestones, the beach) was universal, but women added their own battle cries for reproductive rights and equality. The events of May ’68 were a catalyst for the emergence of the Mouvement de Libération des Femmes (MLF) in 1970, which directly traced its roots to the frustrations of female activists in 1968.

Mexico: The Tlatelolco Massacre and the Fight for Democracy

In Mexico, the 1968 student movement was brutally suppressed on October 2 at the Plaza de las Tres Culturas in Tlatelolco. Women students played a critical role in organizing the protests that demanded democratic reforms and an end to the authoritarian rule of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). They formed part of the Consejo Nacional de Huelga (National Strike Council), sharing leadership and participating in debates. Figures such as Consuelo "Coco" Solís and Raúl Álvarez Garín (though male, many women were unnamed) highlight the intense involvement of women. The repression at Tlatelolco radicalized many women, leading to the formation of feminist collectives that continued to fight for justice in the decades that followed.

West Germany and Japan: Parallel Struggles

In West Germany, the student movement, led by the Socialist German Student Union (SDS), saw women organizing within and against the male leftist establishment. Ruth Rehmann and other activists pushed for the inclusion of women's issues, leading to the creation of the Frauenbewegung (women's movement). In Japan, the student protests of 1968–69 (including the occupation of the University of Tokyo) were intense and often violent. Women participated in the radical student sect Zengakuren, but they also faced marginalization and sexual exploitation. Japanese feminists later formed groups like Chūpiren (Women's Liberation League) to address these double standards. The struggles of women in these movements were a prelude to the global second-wave feminist wave.

Women in the Worker Movements of 1968

Alongside the student uprisings, 1968 witnessed massive worker mobilizations, especially in Western Europe, Eastern Europe, and Latin America. Women workers, often relegated to low-paid and precarious jobs, were at the forefront of strikes and factory occupations. Their demands for better wages, working conditions, and gender equality shook the foundations of industrial capitalism and state socialism alike.

France: The Great Strike of May–June 1968

The French general strike of May–June 1968 involved over 10 million workers, and women were a significant part of this labor uprising. At the Renault factories, women workers (many of whom were immigrants) participated in the occupation of plants. They demanded not only wage increases but also childcare facilities and an end to gender-based job segregation. The strikes led to the Grenelle Agreements, which raised the minimum wage by 35% and improved working conditions, but gender parity was not achieved. The experience radicalized many women, who then pushed for the creation of the Mouvement pour la Libération des Femmes (MLF) in 1970. Their activism highlighted the intersection of class and gender oppression.

Italy: The Hot Autumn and Female Factory Workers

In Italy, 1968 was the prelude to the "Hot Autumn" of 1969, a period of intense labor conflict. Women workers in the textile, electronics, and garment industries were essential to the strikes that demanded higher wages and the right to unionize. The Pirelli factory in Milan and the Olivetti plants saw women leading walkouts. These women faced double discrimination: as workers exploited by capital, and as women expected to bear the burden of domestic labor. The Italian feminist movement, including groups like Rivolta Femminile, emerged from these struggles and fought for divorce rights, abortion access, and equal pay. The labor movement's failure to fully address women's issues prompted autonomous feminist organizing.

Czechoslovakia: The Prague Spring and Women’s Activism

In the Eastern Bloc, the Prague Spring of 1968 saw a brief liberalization under Alexander Dubček. Women participated in the reform movement, both as students and as workers. They joined the protests against the Soviet invasion in August 1968, demanding political freedom and an end to economic stagnation. Women such as Milada Horáková (a pre-communist-era activist who was executed in 1950 and later became a symbol) and Zuzana Černá (a student activist) are remembered. However, women in Czechoslovakia also faced a "double burden": they were expected to work full-time and manage households. Their activism during 1968 was a precursor to later dissident movements that eventually led to the Velvet Revolution of 1989.

United Kingdom and United States: Grassroots Labor Fights

In the United Kingdom, 1968 saw the Ford sewing machinists' strike at the Dagenham plant, where women workers walked out protesting unequal pay. This strike, led by Rose Boland, Eileen Pullen, Vera Sime, Gwen Davis, and Sheila Douglass, directly led to the passage of the Equal Pay Act 1970. The women's activism in the labor movement during 1968 was a key moment in the fight for gender equality in the workplace. In the United States, women workers in the International Women’s Day march of 1968 (and other protests) demanded equal pay and an end to discrimination. The National Organization for Women (NOW) had been founded in 1966, but 1968 marked a surge in labor activism among women, especially in the service sector.

Intersectional Challenges: Race, Class, and Colonial Struggles

Women in the 1968 movements often faced multiple oppressions simultaneously. In the United States, women of color navigated sexism within the civil rights and Black Power movements, as well as racism within the predominantly white women's movement. For example, Frances Beal coined the term "double jeopardy" to describe the intersection of racial and gender oppression. In Latin America, indigenous women participated in peasant uprisings and student protests but were often erased from historical narratives. In colonized nations like India and Algeria, women activists tied their demands to anti-colonial struggles. The global nature of 1968 forced an early understanding of what later became known as intersectionality, though the term was not yet coined.

Legacy and Impact on Second-Wave Feminism

The women who participated in the 1968 student and worker movements did not immediately achieve full equality, but their activism laid the groundwork for the second-wave feminist movement of the 1970s. In France, the women of May ’68 formed the Mouvement de Libération des Femmes (MLF) and published manifestos. In the United States, the women's liberation movement drew directly on the experiences of women in SDS and the anti-war movement. In Mexico, the feminist movement that emerged after Tlatelolco fought for reproductive rights and political representation. In Japan, ūman ribu (women's lib) groups critiqued both capitalism and patriarchy. The legacy of 1968 also includes the passage of equal pay legislation, the legalization of abortion in many countries, and the establishment of women's studies programs in universities.

However, the historical recognition of women's roles in 1968 has been slow. Many male historians have focused on iconic male figures like Daniel Cohn-Bendit in France or Tom Hayden in the US, while ignoring the contributions of women like Catherine Bernheim (a leader of the French student union) or Michele Wallace (who criticized the sexism of the Black Power movement). Recent scholarship has worked to recover these narratives. For instance, Kristin Ross's book May '68 and Its Afterlives and research by the Verso blog have highlighted women's agency.

The Rise of Feminist Historiography

The re-examination of 1968 through a feminist lens has become a vibrant field of study. Scholars like Sara Evans (US) and Maud Anne Bracke (Europe) have shown that women's participation was not merely reactive but proactive. For example, in Italy, the women of the Lotta Femminista group argued that the personal is political, a slogan that originated in the struggles of 1968. In Eastern Europe, women activists used the language of socialism to demand gender equality, but were often thwarted by state patriarchy. The Encyclopaedia Britannica's entry on the 1968 protests and a New York Times article on women in May '68 provide accessible entry points for readers.

Enduring Inspiration for Contemporary Activism

The spirit of 1968 continues to animate social movements today. The women who occupied universities and factories, who faced tear gas and police batons, who demanded freedom from patriarchy and capitalism, remain role models for new generations. The #MeToo movement, the Women's March, and global strikes for climate justice all echo the activism of 1968. Women like Greta Thunberg (though not directly linked to 1968) embody the same defiance of authority and insistence on justice. The legacy of 1968 also includes the recognition that gender equality cannot be achieved without addressing economic inequality, racial justice, and political freedom. The women of 1968 taught us that revolution must be intersectional, or it is not a revolution at all.

"Women of 1968 were not just the 'women of the movement' – they were the movement itself, often fighting two battles: one against the state and one against the patriarchy within their own ranks." – adapted from historian Kristin Ross

Conclusion

Women’s involvement in the 1968 student and worker movements across the globe was a defining feature of that transformative year. They organized strikes, occupied campuses, theorized new forms of resistance, and laid the intellectual and organizational foundations for second-wave feminism. Their contributions were first underestimated, but now rightly celebrated as essential to the history of modern protest. The echoes of their demands – for equality, justice, and liberation – resonate in the struggles of today. As we continue to confront systemic oppression, the women of 1968 remind us that the fight for a better world requires the full participation of all, especially those whose voices have been historically silenced. Their legacy is not merely historical; it is a call to action.