Table of Contents

Ancient Healers and the Roots of Women’s Medical Practice

Long before the first medical schools opened their doors, women were the primary healers in nearly every human society. In ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, China, India, and the Americas, women gathered herbs, assisted childbirth, set broken bones, and passed down remedies through oral tradition. The earliest written medical texts—such as the Egyptian Ebers Papyrus (circa 1550 BCE)—include treatments developed by female practitioners, though their names are often lost. Yet the historical record does preserve the identities of several remarkable women whose expertise shaped the foundations of medicine.

Agnodice of Athens: The First Female Physician in Myth and History

In 4th-century BCE Athens, women were legally prohibited from studying or practicing medicine. According to the Roman author Hyginus, a young woman named Agnodice disguised herself as a man to study under the physician Herophilus. She became skilled in treating women’s illnesses, especially difficult labors. When male patients refused her care, she revealed her true identity to a woman in distress, proving that a female healer could understand women’s bodies better than men. The enraged male physicians accused her of seducing patients, but the women of Athens rallied to her defense, forcing the city to change its laws. Although the story may be legendary, it reflects the real barriers women faced—and the community support that sometimes helped them overcome those barriers.

Trotula of Salerno: The Medieval Medical Authority

The medical school at Salerno, Italy, was uniquely open to women during the 11th and 12th centuries. Among its most distinguished scholars was Trotula (also known as Trota or Trotula of Salerno), who authored several texts that became standard references across Europe. Her most famous work, De Passionibus Mulierum (On the Diseases of Women), discussed menstruation, conception, pregnancy, childbirth, and postnatal care with a detail and compassion that male authors often lacked. Trotula’s writings combined practical bedside observations with humoral theory, advocating for gentle treatments and addressing the emotional needs of patients. For centuries her work was attributed to male authors; only in the late 20th century did historians confirm her identity as a woman. (Read more about Trotula in the National Library of Medicine.)

Hildegard of Bingen: Holistic Mystic and Natural Philosopher

Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179) was a Benedictine abbess, composer, theologian, and naturalist. Her medical encyclopedia, Physica, described the medicinal properties of plants, trees, stones, animals, and metals. Her other major medical work, Causae et Curae (Causes and Cures), explained disease as an imbalance of humors affected by diet, environment, and spiritual state. Hildegard prescribed fasting, herbal baths, and dietary changes, and she even described what we now recognize as migraines and mental illness. Her holistic view—treating the whole person rather than just symptoms—foreshadowed modern integrative medicine. Hildegard also corresponded with popes and emperors, using her authority to advocate for compassion in healing. (Explore Hildegard’s works at the U.S. National Library of Medicine.)

The Hidden Workforce: Medieval Midwives and Herbalists

Beyond these famous names, anonymous women served as the backbone of community health. In medieval Europe, midwives were licensed by church authorities, required to attend apprenticeships, and expected to know how to perform emergency baptisms as well as deliver babies. Village herbalists knew which plants could induce labor, reduce fevers, or soothe burns. Many of these women practiced folk medicine derived from pre-Christian traditions. When the witch hunts erupted in the 15th through 18th centuries, healers were frequently accused of witchcraft. The Malleus Maleficarum (1487), a manual for witch-hunters, explicitly condemned midwives for supposedly causing infertility and stillbirths. An estimated 40,000 to 60,000 people (mostly women) were executed for witchcraft in Europe, and the loss of their medical knowledge was catastrophic. The persecution effectively silenced generations of female practitioners, forcing women’s healing into the shadows.

Early Modern Era: Women in the Household and the Laboratory

The Renaissance and early modern period saw the rise of university-based medicine, which systematically excluded women. Yet women continued to practice healing within their homes, apothecary shops, and charitable institutions. They wrote recipe books, managed herb gardens, and attended the sick during epidemics. A few remarkable figures managed to publish medical works and influence the field despite these restrictions.

Jane Sharp: The Midwife Who Wrote the Book

In 1671, English midwife Jane Sharp published The Midwives Book: Or the Whole Art of Midwifery Discovered. It was the first English-language textbook on midwifery written by a woman. Sharp insisted that women were naturally suited to childbirth attendance and criticized the encroachment of male surgeons into obstetrics. She provided clear instructions on handling difficult deliveries, breastfeeding, and newborn care. The book went through multiple editions, indicating strong demand among midwives and laywomen for practical knowledge written by a female practitioner.

Maria Sibylla Merian: The Artist Who Unlocked the Secrets of Insects and Disease

Maria Sibylla Merian (1647–1717) was a German naturalist and scientific illustrator. While not a physician, her work had profound implications for medicine. She traveled to Suriname to document the metamorphosis of insects, recording how caterpillars transformed into butterflies and how insects interacted with plants. Her detailed illustrations of the life cycles of insects—including those that transmit diseases—laid the groundwork for medical entomology. Merian’s insistence on accurate observation of nature influenced later scientists who studied vectors of malaria, yellow fever, and other infectious diseases. (Read more about Merian in The Guardian.)

The Suppression of Female Healers: Witch Hunts and Formal Exclusion

The witch hunts of early modern Europe were not random persecutions; they were systematic attacks on women’s medical authority. Healers who knew how to use herbs for pain relief or who successfully treated infertility were especially vulnerable. The association of women with magic and folk healing was used to justify their exclusion from universities and licensing. By the 18th century, male physicians had successfully defined themselves as the only legitimate medical practitioners, pushing midwives and female healers to the margins. This legacy of exclusion persisted for centuries, creating a gender gap in medical authority that is only now being fully addressed.

19th Century Trailblazers: Breaking into the Medical Establishment

The 19th century was a turning point. Women began systematically fighting for the right to attend medical schools, earn degrees, and obtain licenses. Their battles were hard-won against entrenched prejudice, but each victory opened doors for others.

Elizabeth Blackwell: First Woman M.D. in the United States

Elizabeth Blackwell (1821–1910) was rejected by numerous medical schools before being admitted to Geneva Medical College in New York—largely as a joke. She graduated in 1849, the first woman to receive a medical degree from an accredited U.S. institution. After further training in Europe, she founded the New York Infirmary for Women and Children in 1857, staffed entirely by women. During the Civil War, she helped train nurses for the Union army. Blackwell also established the first women’s medical college as a separate institution. Her memoir, Pioneer Work in Opening the Medical Profession to Women, remains an inspiring account of perseverance. (Learn more at the National Women’s History Museum.)

Elizabeth Garrett Anderson: Britain’s First Woman Physician

In the United Kingdom, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson (1836–1917) faced similar obstacles. After being rejected by every British medical school, she earned her qualifications by passing the Society of Apothecaries’ examination—a loophole that was quickly closed after she succeeded. In 1874, she co-founded the London School of Medicine for Women, which later became the Royal Free Hospital School of Medicine. She became the first female dean of a British medical school and the first woman to earn a medical degree in France. Her daughter, Louisa Garrett Anderson, also became a doctor and served as a surgeon in World War I.

Mary Edwards Walker: Surgeon, Prisoner, and Medal of Honor Recipient

Mary Edwards Walker (1832–1919) graduated from Syracuse Medical College in 1855, one of the few women in her class. During the Civil War, she served as a contract surgeon for the Union Army—initially without official rank. She was captured by Confederate forces in 1864 and held as a prisoner of war for several months. After the war, she was awarded the Medal of Honor in 1865. The medal was later revoked during a 1917 review of recipients, but reinstated in 1977. Walker was also a vocal advocate for dress reform, wearing trousers under a short skirt, and for women’s suffrage. She spent much of her life campaigning for gender equality in medicine and politics.

Florence Nightingale: The Founder of Modern Nursing

Florence Nightingale (1820–1910) is often remembered as the “Lady with the Lamp,” but her contributions to medicine go far beyond sentimental imagery. Nightingale revolutionized sanitation in military and civilian hospitals. During the Crimean War, she reduced the hospital death rate from 42% to 2% by implementing hand-washing, ventilation, and waste management. After the war, she established the Nightingale Training School for Nurses at St. Thomas’ Hospital in London. She was also a skilled statistician, using polar area charts to visualize mortality data and advocate for healthcare reform. Nightingale’s insistence on evidence-based practice laid the groundwork for modern nursing and infection control.

Black Women in 19th-Century Medicine: Rebecca Lee Crumpler and Susan Smith McKinney Steward

Rebecca Lee Crumpler (1831–1895) became the first African American woman to earn a medical degree in the United States, graduating from the New England Female Medical College in 1864. She had previously worked as a nurse. After the Civil War, she moved to Richmond, Virginia, where she provided care to formerly enslaved people who had little access to medical services. She later published A Book of Medical Discourses (1883), one of the first medical texts by an African American author. Susan Smith McKinney Steward (1847–1918) earned her medical degree from the New York Medical College in 1870, becoming the first African American woman to graduate from a medical school in New York. She co-founded the Brooklyn Women’s Homeopathic Hospital and Dispensary and later served as a professor at the Baton Rouge College of Medicine and Pharmacy. Their stories highlight the intersection of race and gender discrimination, yet they persevered and made lasting contributions.

20th Century Innovators: Scientists, Surgeons, and Pioneers

The 20th century witnessed women entering every specialty of medicine, from laboratory bench to surgical suite. Their discoveries transformed the treatment of cancer, heart disease, infections, and more.

Gertrude Elion: The Nobel Prize–Winning Pharmacologist

Gertrude Elion (1918–1999) was a biochemist and pharmacologist who developed life-saving drugs using rational drug design, a revolutionary approach at the time. She created 6-mercaptopurine for childhood leukemia, azathioprine for organ transplant rejection, acyclovir for herpes, and allopurinol for gout. Denied a graduate research position because she was a woman, she worked as a lab assistant and later joined Burroughs Wellcome. In 1988, she shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, becoming only the fifth woman to win that prize. (Read more about Gertrude Elion at the Nobel Foundation.)

Helen Taussig: Founder of Pediatric Cardiology

Helen Taussig (1898–1986) overcame dyslexia and severe hearing loss to become a pioneering pediatric cardiologist. In the 1940s, she identified the cause of “blue baby” syndrome (tetralogy of Fallot) and worked with surgeon Alfred Blalock to develop the Blalock-Taussig shunt, the first successful operation for children with congenital heart defects. This procedure saved thousands of lives and opened the field of cardiac surgery. Taussig later helped investigate the link between thalidomide and birth defects, leading to stricter drug regulations. She became the first female president of the American Heart Association.

Virginia Apgar: The Woman Who Saved Newborns with a Simple Score

In 1953, anesthesiologist Virginia Apgar (1909–1974) introduced the Apgar score, a quick assessment of a newborn’s heart rate, respiration, muscle tone, reflex response, and color. The score took just one minute to determine and revolutionized neonatal care by allowing immediate intervention for babies in distress. Apgar was also the first woman to become a full professor at Columbia University’s College of Physicians and Surgeons. She later worked with the March of Dimes to prevent birth defects. The Apgar score remains one of the most widely used medical assessments in the world. (Learn about Dr. Apgar at the National Library of Medicine.)

Rebecca Lancefield: The Microbiologist Who Classified Streptococci

Rebecca Lancefield (1895–1981) spent most of her career at Rockefeller University, where she developed the Lancefield classification system for streptococcal bacteria. By serotyping Streptococcus based on carbohydrate antigens, she enabled clinicians to distinguish between group A (responsible for strep throat and scarlet fever), group B (a major cause of neonatal infections), and others. Her system is still used today to guide treatment and epidemiology. Lancefield’s meticulous work laid the foundation for understanding autoimmune complications such as rheumatic fever.

Rosalind Franklin: The Unsung Architect of DNA Discovery

Though not a physician, Rosalind Franklin (1920–1958) made contributions essential to modern molecular medicine. Her X-ray diffraction images of DNA, particularly Photo 51, revealed the helical structure that Watson and Crick later used to build their model. Franklin also conducted important research on tobacco mosaic virus and the structure of coal, which had implications for public health. Her work was largely unacknowledged during her lifetime; only later did she receive full credit. Her story underscores the gender bias that has historically minimized women’s contributions to scientific discovery.

Women in Global Health Leadership

The 20th century also saw women leading international health organizations. Dr. Gro Harlem Brundtland (former Norwegian prime minister) served as Director-General of the World Health Organization from 1998 to 2003, focusing on tobacco control and sustainable development. Dr. Margaret Chan from China led WHO from 2006 to 2017, overseeing responses to the H1N1 pandemic, Ebola outbreak, and the Zika virus. Dr. Mary Bassett, as New York City Health Commissioner and later as New York State Health Commissioner, championed health equity and racial justice in public health. Additionally, Dr. Anne Schuchat led the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s efforts in immunization and pandemic preparedness.

Contemporary Women in Medicine: Leadership and Challenges

Today, women make up more than half of medical school graduates in the United States and many other countries. Yet leadership positions—such as department chairs, deans, and hospital CEOs—remain disproportionately held by men. The following sections highlight both promising developments and persistent barriers.

Women at the Forefront of Research and Administration

  • Dr. Kizzmekia Corbett (b. 1986) was a lead scientist at the National Institutes of Health who helped design the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine. Her work on mRNA technology has saved millions of lives. She now leads research on viral immunology at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.
  • Dr. Nancy Ascher (b. 1957) became the first woman to perform a liver transplant in the United States in 1982. She later became the first woman to chair the Department of Surgery at the University of California, San Francisco.
  • Dr. Carolyn Compton (b. 1952) is a pathologist who developed biomarkers for early cancer detection. She served as the first director of the Office of Critical Path Initiatives at the FDA.
  • Dr. Nahid Bhadelia (b. 1978) is an infectious disease physician and epidemiologist who has led global responses to Ebola and COVID-19. She directs the Boston University Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases Policy and Research.

Persistent Barriers: The Glass Ceiling and Systemic Bias

Despite progress, women in medicine continue to face substantial obstacles. A 2020 study in JAMA found that female physicians earn about 30% less than their male counterparts, even after adjusting for specialty and hours worked. Women are less likely to be promoted to professor or department chair. They also experience higher rates of burnout, partly due to the double burden of clinical work and domestic responsibilities. Microaggressions—such as being mistaken for a nurse or having contributions dismissed—remain common. The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated these disparities, as women disproportionately shouldered childcare and home-schooling duties. Additionally, women of color face compounded discrimination. A 2021 report from the American Medical Association highlighted that Black women physicians report significant bias in patient and colleague interactions.

Initiatives for Change: Mentorship, Policy, and Advocacy

  • Mentorship networks like the American Medical Women’s Association (AMWA) and the Women in Medicine Legacy Foundation provide career guidance and advocacy.
  • Institutional reforms include implementing transparent salary scales, family leave policies, and flexible scheduling to retain talented female physicians.
  • Implicit bias training is now mandatory at many medical schools and hospitals, aiming to reduce discrimination in hiring, promotion, and patient care.
  • Organizations such as Women in Global Health work to ensure that women occupy decision-making roles in health policy, recognizing that diverse leadership leads to better health outcomes.
  • The NIH’s UNITE initiative aims to end structural racism within biomedical research and to support the careers of women of color.

Looking Forward: The Future of Women in Medicine

The history of women in medicine is not merely a story of individuals overcoming obstacles; it is a testament to the collective resilience of women who have always been healers, innovators, and leaders. From the ancient midwives who preserved the art of childbirth to the scientists who mapped the human genome, women have shaped medicine in ways that are only now being fully recognized. As we face global health challenges—antimicrobial resistance, climate-related diseases, health inequities—the full participation of women is essential. Efforts to achieve parity in leadership, eliminate pay gaps, and create inclusive work environments are not just matters of fairness; they are critical to the future of healthcare. The next generation of female physicians, surgeons, and public health leaders stands on the shoulders of giants, and they are already pushing the boundaries of what medicine can achieve. By honoring the past and building a more equitable present, we ensure that the future of medicine is one where all can contribute and thrive.