Music was never merely a backdrop in the Ottoman Empire and the broader Middle East; it was a living thread woven into the fabric of daily life, spirituality, governance, and artistic expression. From the intricate compositions of the imperial court to the hypnotic chants of Sufi lodges and the spirited folk songs of village communities, music served as both a mirror of society and a vehicle for transcendent experience. This article explores the multifaceted role of music in the Ottoman Empire and Middle Eastern cultures, examining its historical significance, theoretical foundations, diverse genres, and enduring legacy in the modern world.

Historical Significance of Music in the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–1922) presided over a vast, multicultural expanse where music evolved as a sophisticated art form patronized by sultans, pashas, and religious institutions. Music was not only entertainment but also a marker of imperial prestige, a tool for military morale, and a medium for spiritual devotion. The court employed highly trained musicians—often from diverse ethnic backgrounds including Turks, Arabs, Greeks, Jews, and Armenians—who developed a rich repertoire of secular and sacred works. Sultan Selim III (r. 1789–1807) himself was a notable composer, known for his compositions in the Acem Aşiran and Hüzzam makams, and he also reformed the court music establishment. His patronage raised the status of musicians to that of elite intellectuals.

Musical education was formalized through meşk, a master–apprentice system that emphasized oral transmission and memorization. This method preserved the nuances of makam (modal system) and usul (rhythmic cycles) for centuries. Key figures such as Itrî (Buhurizade Mustafa Itrî, 17th century) and Hammamizade İsmail Dede Efendi (19th century) became legendary composers whose works remain central to the classical repertoire. Itrî’s Segâh Kurban Bayramı Tekbiri is still performed during festive prayers, while Dede Efendi’s Şevk-u Tarab suite is a masterpiece of Ottoman fasıl music. The Ottoman musical tradition thus represents one of the most complex and refined art music traditions in the Islamic world, alongside Persian and Arab classical music.

The Makam System: The Theoretical Foundation

Central to Ottoman and Middle Eastern music is the makam system—a set of melodic modes defined by specific scale patterns, characteristic intervals (including microtones), and prescribed rules for melodic development and modulation. Each makam evokes a distinct emotional or spiritual mood, known as edâ. For example, Rast conveys serenity and heroism, while Hicaz expresses longing and passion. Nihavent suggests sadness and introspection, and Uşşak carries a tender, yearning quality. The system also incorporates usul—fixed rhythmic cycles that can range from simple 2/4 to complex 120-beat patterns, providing structure for improvisation (taksim) and composition. The interplay between a makam’s ascending and descending forms creates a unique emotional trajectory; for instance, Hicaz in its ascent builds tension through augmented seconds, while its descent resolves into a more consonant cadence.

The makam theory was codified in treatises as early as the 9th century by scholars like Al-Farabi (Kitab al-Musiqi al-Kabir) and later developed by Ottoman theorists such as Kantemiroğlu (Dimitrie Cantemir) in the 18th century. Kantemiroğlu’s treatise not only documented 18th-century repertoire but also included a notation system using Arabic letters, a pioneering effort at transcription. Another essential figure is Abdülbaki Nasır Dede (19th century), who systematized the theory and published a comprehensive guide. Today, the makam tradition survives not only in Turkey but also in Arab countries (as maqam), Iran (dastgah), and Azerbaijan (mugham), each with its own regional variations. The UNESCO recognition of Mevlevi Sema (whirling dervish ceremony) and Azerbaijani Mugham as intangible cultural heritage underscores the global importance of this musical heritage. [1]

Genres of Ottoman Music

Ottoman music can be broadly categorized into several genres, each serving different social and spiritual functions. These genres often shared instruments and theoretical principles but differed in context, repertoire, and performance style.

Court Music (Saray Müziği)

The Ottoman court music tradition, known as fasıl, was performed by ensembles (ince saz) consisting of instruments like the tanbur, kanun, ney, kemençe, and ud. The fasıl suite began with an instrumental taksim (improvisation) followed by a fixed sequence of vocal and instrumental pieces in the same makam. Composers like Dede Efendi produced hundreds of works, including the famous Şevk-u Tarab suite. Court music was a symbol of refinement and was performed at palace ceremonies, banquets, and diplomatic receptions. The mevlid (poem celebrating the Prophet Muhammad’s birth) was also set to music in court style, blending religious devotion with artistic elegance.

Mehter Music (Military Band)

The Mehter (Janissary band) was one of the world's first organized military bands, using powerful percussion (kös drums, davul) and shrill wind instruments (zurna, boru) to boost troops' morale and intimidate enemies. The Mehter's repertoire included pieces like Gedikli and Çiftetelli, played in a loud, rhythmic style designed to be heard over the chaos of battle. The band’s influence spread to Europe through ambassadors and travelers: European composers such as Mozart (Rondo alla Turca from Sonata K. 331), Beethoven (Turkish March from The Ruins of Athens), and Haydn (Military Symphony) incorporated elements of Mehter music, popularizing the alla turca style. After the abolition of the Janissary corps in 1826, the Mehter tradition was revived in the 20th century and is now a celebrated aspect of Turkish cultural heritage. [2]

Sufi Music and the Mevlevi Order

Perhaps the most spiritually significant genre is Sufi music, particularly that of the Mevlevi (Whirling Dervish) order founded by the poet Rumi in the 13th century. The Mevlevi sema ceremony is a ritual of spiritual ascent, accompanied by ney, kudüm (small kettle drums), and halile (cymbals). The ney’s sound symbolizes the reed’s longing for its original bed, representing the soul’s separation from the divine. Rumi’s poetry, especially the Masnavi, is chanted in the form of ayin—a musical cycle that follows the four selams (movements) of the ceremony. The composition of Itrî’s Segâh Kurban Bayramı Tekbiri is a classic example of religious music used in Islamic holidays. Sufi music emphasizes repetition, drone, and gradual crescendo to induce a state of religious ecstasy (hal). Beyond the Mevlevi, other Sufi orders (Bektashi, Qadiri) also developed distinctive musical practices. The Bektashi order, for example, uses the saz in its ayin rituals and includes songs praising Ali and the Twelve Imams.

Folk Music

Folk music was the music of the people—rural communities, nomads, and urban artisans. Instruments like the saz (baglama), kaval (shepherd’s flute), and davul accompanied songs about love, heroism, and daily life. Aşık (minstrel) tradition in Anatolia featured poet-singers who improvised verses in competitive gatherings (aşık atışması). Famous aşık include Karacaoğlan (17th century) and Âşık Veysel (20th century), whose songs blend folk melodies with poetic storytelling. Folk music also preserved ancient pre-Islamic and Turkic elements, blending with local traditions from the Balkans to the Arab world. In eastern Anatolia, dengbej (Kurdish bard) traditions continue to flourish, using the tembûr and singing epic stories of love and war.

Musical Instruments of the Ottoman and Middle Eastern World

The variety of instruments used in these traditions is vast. Here are some of the most iconic:

  • Oud: A fretless, pear-shaped string instrument, considered the king of Middle Eastern instruments. Its warm, resonant tone is central to both classical and popular music. The oud has a deep body and a short neck, typically with eleven strings (five double courses and one single). Its origins date back to ancient Mesopotamia, and it later spread across the Islamic world. [3]
  • Ney: An end-blown reed flute, often associated with Sufi mysticism. Its breathy, plaintive sound symbolizes the human soul yearning for union with the divine. The ney is made from a hollowed reed and has seven finger holes (six front, one back). Master players like Niyazi Sayın have elevated the instrument to a solo status.
  • Tanbur: A long-necked lute with a deep, rounded sound. It was the main instrument of Ottoman classical music, used to play the entire makam repertoire. The tanbur has a hemispherical body made of strips of wood, a long neck with movable frets, and three string courses. It was the preferred instrument of Kantemiroğlu.
  • Kanun: A trapezoidal zither played with finger picks (picks). It provides bright, rapid melodic lines and is essential for Turkish and Arab ensembles. The kanun has up to 78 strings stretched over a wooden soundbox, and its notes can be altered by small metal levers to achieve microtonal intervals.
  • Kemençe (classical kemençe): A bowed instrument with a small, round body, producing a poignant, vocal-like timbre. It is held vertically on the knee and played with a bow. The kemençe is particularly prominent in Turkish classical music and in the folk music of the Black Sea region (where a larger variant, the karadeniz kemençesi, is used).
  • Def and Darbuka: Frame drum and goblet drum, respectively. The def is used in folk and Sufi music; the darbuka is the iconic hand drum of Arab and Turkish clubs. The darbuka has a goblet shape and produces a sharp, resonant bass and a lighter, higher-pitched slap sound.
  • Saz (Bağlama): The most widespread folk lute in Turkey, with a long neck and three courses of strings. It is the instrument of choice for aşık poets. The saz comes in various sizes (from cura to meydan sazı) and is played with a plectrum (tezene).

Many of these instruments have been adopted into Western and world music contexts, proving their versatility and appeal. The oud, for instance, is now used in jazz and fusion groups, while the ney has found its way into ambient and contemporary classical compositions.

Music in the Broader Middle East

While the Ottoman Empire was a central hub, the musical cultures of the Middle East—Persia, the Arab world, and regions like North Africa—developed parallel and interconnected traditions. Persian classical music, known as dastgah, shares modal principles with Ottoman makam but emphasizes different scalar structures and improvisational forms (avaz). The dastgah system consists of twelve principal modes, each with a specific series of intervals and characteristic motifs. Master performers like Mohammad Reza Shajarian have brought Persian classical vocal music to global acclaim. Arab classical music, centered in Cairo and Aleppo, incorporates maqam with a strong emphasis on vocal performance (muwashshah) and instrumental ensembles (takht). The Umm Kulthum phenomenon in 20th-century Egypt exemplifies the fusion of classical maqam with modern arrangements, drawing audiences across the Arab world. Her monthly concerts were broadcast live, and her songs often lasted over an hour, weaving improvisation and emotional intensity.

Key differences exist: Ottoman music tends to be more rhythmically complex (with asymmetric usul like 5/8, 9/8), while Arab music often uses simpler rhythms and longer improvisations. Persian music is more ornamented and features a distinctive vocal style with tahrir (yodel-like embellishments). Nevertheless, the shared heritage—through the oud, the ney, and the modal framework—binds these cultures. The cross-fertilization is evident in the work of composers like the Armenian musician Gomidas Vartabed, who collected and harmonized folk songs from Anatolia, blending Eastern and Western approaches.

Music and Society: Patronage, Gender, and Transmission

Music in the Ottoman Empire was socially stratified. The court and upper classes patronized classical music, while religious orders sustained spiritual music. Women musicians had a complex role: in the private harem, female slaves were trained as cariye musicians, and some became famous composers. Dilhayat Kalfa (18th century) was a notable female composer whose works survive in the repertoire. However, public performance by women was rare and often stigmatized. In rural areas, women were active in folk music, singing lullabies, work songs, and wedding tunes. The tanbur and saz were occasionally played by female aşık, though the profession was dominated by men. During the late Ottoman period, female singers like Hanende Safiye began performing in public concerts, paving the way for modern female artists.

Transmission was largely oral, with written notation only appearing in the 17th century (Cantemir’s treatise) and becoming more systematic in the 19th century with Hacı Arif Bey and the establishment of the Dârülelhan (first Ottoman music conservatory) in 1917. The shift from oral to written culture, combined with Westernization pressures, dramatically changed musical education in the late empire and early republic. The introduction of the solfege system and staff notation threatened the oral tradition, but also allowed for the preservation of many works that would otherwise have been lost.

Legacy and Contemporary Influence

Ottoman and Middle Eastern music has left an indelible mark on modern music both regionally and globally. In Turkey, the classical tradition is kept alive by ensembles like the İstanbul Historical Turkish Music Ensemble and contemporary artists such as Mercan Dede who blend ney and saz with electronic soundscapes. Across the Arab world, maqam remains the foundation of both classical and popular music, from Fairuz to Kamel Messaoudi. Fusion projects like Anouar Brahem (oud and jazz) or İlhan Erşahin (Turkish saxophone and electronics) demonstrate the continued vitality of these traditions.

Western classical and popular music have also absorbed Ottoman influences. The alla turca style popularized by Mozart and Beethoven, the use of darbuka and oud in world music, and the sampling of makam melodies in film scores (e.g., The Last Emperor or Lawrence of Arabia) are testament to this legacy. Jazz musicians like the Algerian-French oud player Anouar Brahem and the Lebanese trumpeter Ibrahim Maalouf integrate microtonal scales into their improvisations, creating a new musical language that bridges East and West.

Preservation and Revival Efforts

Efforts to preserve this rich musical heritage have intensified in recent decades. UNESCO’s inscription of the Mevlevi Sema (2008) and Arabic calligraphy as intangible heritage includes related music. Institutions like the UNESCO International Institute for Central Asian Studies and ITU Turkish Music State Conservatory in Istanbul document and teach traditional forms. Festivals such as the Istanbul Music Festival and Fes Festival of World Sacred Music feature Ottoman and Middle Eastern music alongside global acts.

Digital archives, such as the European Archive of Ottoman Music and the Library of Congress Middle Eastern Collection, have made rare recordings accessible. Moreover, online platforms like the Mevlana Museum’s digital archive offer access to manuscripts and audio recordings. Amidst modernization and globalization, these efforts ensure that the soulful sounds of the ney and the intricate rhythms of the usul continue to inspire future generations. The revival of interest in traditional instruments and modal improvisation among young musicians—from Erdal Erzincan’s bağlama performances to Dhafer Youssef’s oud and scat singing—points to a resilient and evolving tradition.

Conclusion

Music in the Ottoman Empire and Middle Eastern cultures was never a mere pastime. It was a sophisticated art form that articulated imperial power, religious devotion, and communal identity. Through its elaborate modal systems, diverse instruments, and varied genres, it reflected the depth and complexity of a civilization that spanned centuries and continents. Today, as musicians and scholars continue to study, perform, and adapt this music, its timeless qualities—its ability to evoke the sublime, to tell stories, and to unite people—remain as powerful as ever. Understanding this legacy is essential for appreciating not only the history of the Middle East but also the universal human need for beauty and transcendence.

References

1. UNESCO. “Mevlevi Sema Ceremony.”

2. “Mehter.” Encyclopaedia Britannica.

3. “Oud.” Grove Music Online.

4. Library of Congress. “Middle Eastern Music Collection.”

5. UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage.