What Is Populism?

Populism is a political approach that frames society as fundamentally divided between two homogeneous and antagonistic groups: the virtuous “people” and the corrupt “elite.” Populist leaders claim to speak directly for the people, often bypassing traditional intermediaries such as political parties, the media, and civil society. This ideological style is “thin-centered,” meaning it attaches itself to various host ideologies, ranging from right-wing nationalism to left-wing socialism. Within Western democracies, two broad strands are identifiable: right-wing populism, which emphasizes nativism, anti-immigration sentiment, and defense of traditional cultural values; and left-wing populism, which focuses on economic inequality, class struggle, and opposition to corporate power. Despite their differences, both share a rhetorical structure that pits the ordinary people against a privileged elite.

Populism is not new; it has surfaced throughout history, from the People’s Party in 19th-century America to Peronism in Argentina and the Poujadist movement in 1950s France. However, the current wave is distinguished by its scale, its amplification through digital media, and its integration into the mainstream of many Western democracies. This resurgence reflects deep-seated frustrations that established political systems have struggled to address, making populism a defining feature of 21st-century politics. The thin ideology of populism allows it to blend with diverse agendas, which is why voters can encounter both left-wing populists like Bernie Sanders and right-wing populists like Marine Le Pen under the same broad label.

Factors Driving the Resurgence of Populism

The contemporary rise of populism is driven by an interconnected set of economic, cultural, political, and technological forces. Understanding these drivers is essential for grasping why populism has become so potent in wealthy, established democracies.

Economic Inequality and Insecurity

Decades of rising income inequality, stagnant wages for middle- and lower-income households, and the decline of manufacturing employment have left many feeling left behind by globalization. The 2008 financial crisis and subsequent austerity measures deepened grievances, while the COVID-19 pandemic further exposed vulnerabilities in social safety nets and accelerated labor market disruption. Populist politicians tap into these anxieties by blaming immigrants, trade deals, or “globalist elites” for job losses and downward mobility. Research from the Economist notes that regions hardest hit by deindustrialization show the strongest support for populist candidates. Similarly, a Brookings Institution analysis highlights that economic insecurity—especially among those without college degrees—is a consistent predictor of populist voting in both Europe and the United States. The hollowing out of the middle class and the concentration of wealth at the top have created fertile ground for anti-establishment messages.

Cultural Anxiety and Identity Politics

Rapid demographic change driven by immigration, combined with shifting social norms around gender, sexuality, and race, has generated a sense of cultural displacement among some groups. Populist leaders frame these changes as existential threats to national identity, traditions, and security. This cultural backlash is especially pronounced among older, less educated, and rural voters who feel that their way of life is being eroded. Studies by the Pew Research Center show a strong correlation between anti-immigrant attitudes and support for populist parties in Europe. In the United States, the perception that “American culture” is under threat has been a powerful mobilizer for right-wing populism. The rise of identity politics on both sides of the spectrum has reinforced a zero-sum view of cultural change, making cross-group compromise harder.

Declining Trust in Institutions

Trust in traditional institutions—governments, political parties, the media, and the judiciary—has declined sharply across Western democracies. Repeated corruption scandals, perceived incompetence, and the feeling that elites are insulated from consequences have fueled widespread cynicism. Populists capitalize on this distrust by positioning themselves as political outsiders who will “drain the swamp.” The erosion of trust is self-reinforcing: as populists attack institutions, confidence in those institutions erodes further, creating a feedback loop that benefits populist challengers. The OECD reports that less than half of citizens in many OECD countries trust their national governments, with numbers falling even lower among younger generations. This institutional deficit weakens the capacity of democratic systems to respond to crises, further feeding populist narratives.

Digital Media, Algorithms, and Disinformation

Digital platforms have fundamentally changed how political messages are disseminated and consumed. Algorithms that prioritize engagement often amplify sensational, polarizing, and emotionally resonant content. Populist leaders use social media to bypass traditional gatekeepers and communicate directly with supporters, spreading simplified narratives that resonate on an emotional level. Facebook, Twitter (now X), and YouTube have been critical in scaling populist movements, from Donald Trump’s 2016 campaign to the Five Star Movement in Italy. The spread of disinformation and conspiracy theories on these platforms further erodes shared factual grounding, deepens societal divisions, and fuels outrage-driven politics. The lack of effective content moderation and the rise of encrypted messaging apps like Telegram and WhatsApp have created echo chambers where populist ideas can thrive without challenge. Research from Columbia Journalism Review documents how disinformation networks strategically target vulnerable communities to amplify populist grievances.

Impacts on Western Democracies

The rise of populism has produced a wide range of consequences for liberal democratic systems. Some effects are polarizing and potentially corrosive, while others have opened space for political innovation and greater participation. The net impact varies by country and context, but certain patterns recur.

Political Polarization and Gridlock

Populist rhetoric often frames politics as a moral struggle between good and evil, leaving little room for compromise. This Manichaean worldview exacerbates existing partisan divisions, making legislative cooperation increasingly difficult. In the United States, the rise of populism has contributed to legislative gridlock, increased use of executive orders, and a decline in bipartisan cooperation. In Europe, populist parties have made coalition-building more complex, as mainstream parties are often reluctant to partner with them. The resulting political instability can weaken democratic governance and erode public confidence in democratic processes. Polarization also spills over into everyday life, with citizens less willing to interact with those from the opposing political camp.

Erosion of Democratic Norms and Rule of Law

Populist leaders frequently question the legitimacy of independent courts, free press, and electoral processes. When in power, they may attempt to weaken institutional checks and balances, concentrating authority in the executive branch. In Hungary and Poland, governments led by populist parties have pursued judicial reforms that critics argue undermine the rule of law. The International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA) has documented how populist governments in power tend to hollow out democratic institutions over time. Even in established democracies like the United States, attacks on the legitimacy of elections and the media have become standard features of populist discourse, weakening norms that have long sustained democratic stability. The refusal of many populist politicians to concede elections or accept unfavorable court rulings represents a direct challenge to the democratic contract.

Policy Shifts and National Sovereignty

Populist parties tend to prioritize national interests over international cooperation, manifesting in trade protectionism, stricter immigration controls, and skepticism toward multilateral agreements. Brexit stands as the most prominent example: the campaign to leave the European Union was heavily driven by populist appeals to sovereignty and control. In the United States, the Trump administration withdrew from the Trans-Pacific Partnership, renegotiated NAFTA, and threatened to leave NATO. While these policies resonate with voters who feel globalization has benefited elites at their expense, they also risk fragmenting the global order and undermining collective action on issues such as climate change, pandemic response, and financial regulation. The shift toward economic nationalism has also emboldened other countries to pursue similar policies, raising the risks of trade wars and diplomatic friction.

Voter Engagement and Political Participation

One positive effect of populism has been to increase political engagement among groups that had felt marginalized. Populist movements often bring new voters into the political process, including those who previously felt disconnected from establishment parties. The 2016 U.S. election saw record turnout among working-class white voters; similarly, left-wing populist parties in Spain (Podemos) and Greece (Syriza) mobilized younger and more economically precocious citizens. However, this engagement is often accompanied by heightened anger and a refusal to accept electoral outcomes that do not align with populist expectations, as seen in the January 6, 2021 attack on the U.S. Capitol. Populism can thus both energize democracy and expose its vulnerabilities. The challenge is to channel this new participation into constructive democratic practices rather than destructive confrontation.

Case Studies of Populism in Action

United States: The Trump Phenomenon

Donald Trump’s 2016 presidential campaign epitomized right-wing populism in a major Western democracy. His rhetoric—attacking the “Washington swamp,” promising to “build the wall,” and questioning the legitimacy of media and electoral integrity—resonated with millions of Americans who felt ignored by both parties. Trump’s presidency saw significant policy changes: tax cuts, deregulation, and a shift toward protectionist trade policies. Despite losing the 2020 election, his continued influence over the Republican Party underscores populism’s staying power. The storming of the Capitol on January 6, 2021 revealed the potential for populist mobilization to turn violent when democratic norms are perceived as violated. Trump’s subsequent legal troubles and ongoing political activity have kept populism at the center of U.S. politics, with many Republicans continuing to embrace his style and policy platform ahead of the 2024 election.

United Kingdom: Brexit and the Leave Campaign

The 2016 Brexit referendum was a watershed for populism in Europe. The Leave campaign, led by figures like Boris Johnson and Nigel Farage, successfully framed the European Union as an out-of-touch elite imposing rules on ordinary Britons. Slogans like “Take Back Control” combined appeals to national sovereignty and anti-immigration sentiment. The narrow victory for Leave and the chaotic aftermath—including multiple delays, leadership changes, and ongoing economic disruptions—illustrate both the power and the perils of populist-driven majoritarian decisions. Brexit has strained the UK’s political system and highlighted the difficulty of implementing populist mandates within complex constitutional frameworks. The rise of the Reform Party (formerly the Brexit Party) and the Conservative Party’s continued rightward drift demonstrate that populism remains a potent force in British politics even after the withdrawal from the EU.

France: The National Rally and Beyond

Marine Le Pen’s National Rally (formerly National Front) has been a major force in French politics for over a decade. Le Pen has softened her party’s image while maintaining core populist themes: opposition to immigration, skepticism toward the EU, and support for “economic patriotism.” Her strong showing in the 2017 and 2022 presidential elections—where she forced run-off votes against Emmanuel Macron—demonstrates that populism has become mainstream in France. The rise of the National Rally has also pushed the mainstream right and left toward more nationalistic positions, reshaping the entire political spectrum. The 2024 European Parliament elections saw the National Rally emerge as the largest French delegation, signaling continued momentum. Additionally, the emergence of far-right figure Éric Zemmour and the left-populist movement La France Insoumise under Jean-Luc Mélenchon shows that populism spans the political spectrum in France.

Italy: Five Star Movement and Lega

Italy offers a case of populism from both the left and right. The Five Star Movement (M5S), founded by comedian Beppe Grillo, began as a left-leaning, anti-establishment protest party focused on direct democracy and environmental issues. Lega, led by Matteo Salvini, evolved into a hard-right, anti-immigrant populist party. Both parties have governed together in coalition, illustrating the fluidity of populist alliances. Italy’s experience shows that populism can mutate and adapt: after initial successes, the M5S saw its support decline as it faced the realities of governing, while Lega remains a potent force. The country’s persistent political instability—with frequent government collapses—partly reflects the difficulty of integrating populist actors into a stable democratic system. The 2022 election victory of the far-right Brothers of Italy party, led by Giorgia Meloni, demonstrates that populist and nativist themes continue to dominate Italian politics, with Meloni’s government pushing for constitutional reforms and stricter immigration policies.

Germany: The Alternative for Germany (AfD)

The Alternative for Germany (AfD) began as a Eurosceptic party during the Eurozone crisis and later shifted to a fiercely anti-immigration platform under the slogan “Germany first.” The party capitalized on public discontent with Chancellor Angela Merkel’s 2015 decision to allow over a million asylum seekers into Germany. AfD entered the Bundestag in 2017 and has since become the largest opposition party in some eastern states. Its radical rhetoric, which has included downplaying Nazi crimes, has led to surveillance by German intelligence agencies. The AfD’s rise has polarized German society and forced mainstream parties to take stronger positions on immigration and identity. Recent polls show the AfD consistently polling at around 20% nationally, reflecting deep-rooted discontent in parts of the electorate. The party’s youth wing and connections to far-right extremist networks have raised concerns about the long-term threat to Germany’s democratic order.

Spain: Podemos, Vox, and the Fracturing of the Party System

Spain provides a vivid example of populism emerging on both the left and the right simultaneously. Podemos, founded in 2014, channeled left-wing populist anger against austerity and corruption after the financial crisis. Its leader, Pablo Iglesias, used a direct, anti-establishment style to mobilize younger voters and the precariat. At the same time, the right-wing populist party Vox emerged with a hardline anti-immigration, anti-feminist, and ultra-nationalist platform, winning significant support in regional elections and entering the national parliament in 2019. The fragmentation of Spain’s traditional two-party system into a multipolar landscape has made coalition governments the norm, and both Podemos and Vox have held or influenced power in various coalitions. This dual populist pressure has forced the mainstream parties—the Socialists and the People’s Party—to adopt more radical stances on identity and territorial integrity, particularly regarding Catalonia. Spain’s experience shows that populism can reshape party systems even in countries with strong regional identities and established democratic institutions.

The Future of Populism and Democratic Resilience

The rise of populism is not a temporary aberration but a structural shift in the politics of Western democracies. It reflects genuine grievances—economic insecurity, cultural anxiety, and distrust of elites—that established political systems have struggled to address. While populism has democratizing potential by bringing underrepresented voices into the political arena, it also poses serious risks: erosion of liberal norms, weakening of institutional checks, and the spread of misinformation that undermines democratic deliberation.

Navigating this new landscape requires a balanced response. Mainstream parties must engage with the concerns that fuel populism—particularly economic inequality and the perception of cultural neglect—without adopting populism’s divisive rhetoric or anti-institutional stance. Strengthening democratic resilience through media literacy, campaign finance reform, protections for judicial independence, and investments in social safety nets is essential. For citizens and policymakers alike, understanding populism’s appeal and its effects is a critical step toward defending the democratic values that remain the foundation of Western societies. The path forward lies not in dismissing populist voters but in addressing the underlying conditions that make populism so compelling, while steadfastly protecting the institutions and norms that sustain liberal democracy. Concrete measures such as stronger antitrust enforcement against digital monopolies, civic education programs that emphasize critical thinking, and strengthening international cooperation on issues like climate change and tax evasion can help reclaim the center ground. Ultimately, the durability of liberal democracy will depend on its ability to deliver tangible benefits to ordinary people and to rebuild the trust that populism has exploited.